Startle eyeblinks are generally attenuated for foreground stimuli that the participant finds especially salient or interesting, but are augmented for stimuli towards which the participant is deliberately directing his or her attention (see Filion, Dawson, & Schell, 1998, for a comprehensive review).ДЄs a comparison, in this research we also used facial EMG to measure affect elicited by social categorizations. However, the reflex can also be augmented or attenuated as a function of task-relevant or salient features of the stimulus, irrespective of arousal ( Filion, Dawson, & Schell, 1993 Lipp, Siddle, & Dall, 1997 Simons & Zelson, 1985). At longer lead intervals (i.e., 800 ms or longer), the presentation of negative pictures leads to augmentation of the startle response compared to instances when the participant views neutral and positive ones. In a typical investigation of emotional modification of the startle reflex, a loud, startling burst of white noise is presented at some lead interval after picture onset while the research participant views a picture from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS e.g., Bradley, Cuthbert, & Lang, 1993 Mallan & Lipp, 2007 Price, Dieckman, & Harmon-Jones, 2012 Vanman, Boehmelt, Dawson, & Schell, 1996). The aim of the present research was to examine the extent that startle eyeblink modification can differentially index the emotional and attentional biases that accompany social categorizations. Therefore, outgroup members should also draw greater attention than do ingroup members. Prior research suggests that we have a similar preparedness to associate outgroup members with danger, as they may be likely associated with a threat in the past ( Mallan, Sax, & Lipp, 2009 Г–hman, 2005). This attentional bias may reflect an evolved module of fear and fear learning ( Г–hman & Mineka, 2001).

Humans, like other animals, are particularly prone to attend more to stimuli that are threatening than other kinds of stimuli ( Г–hman, 1997). People are therefore also likely to attend to ingroup and outgroup members differently. Social categorizations are advantageous because they enable us to identify others who may provide benefits to the self (i.e., ingroup members) while also helping us to recognize others who may pose a threat (i.e., outgroup members). Typically, the resulting categorization automatically leads to ingroup bias, in which more positive evaluations are made toward ingroup members and more negative affect is directed toward outgroup members ( Kubota, Banaji, & Phelps, 2012 Molenberghs, 2013 Mullen, Brown, & Smith, 1992). Social categorization, especially for some well-developed categories (e.g., race, gender, age), is relatively effortless, unconscious, and occurs without intention ( Brewer, 1988 Van Bavel & Cunningham, 2011).

Reflex extreme race